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Chapter 5 of the book

Eat

Part Two followed the body that moves. Part Three follows food into it: what goes on the plate and in the glass, and the microbes waiting in the gut to meet it.

ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.3 things to start with3 popular claims graded131 works cited

How the chapter opens

In 1963 a government survey of arthritis among the Pima of the Gila River Indian Community, in southern Arizona, "unexpectedly revealed that many members of the community were diabetic," a National Institutes of Health investigator later wrote. Early in the twentieth century, a review of Pima medical conditions had listed a single case. The long-term study that followed found the disease in forty to fifty percent of Pima adults over thirty-five.

The change had begun with water. Late in the nineteenth century, farmers upstream dammed and diverted the Gila, the river that watered the fields of the Akimel O'otham, the people the Spanish named Pima. Decades of famine followed. In the Community's own account, "The federal government stepped in and doled out canned and processed food by the ton."1

What the chapter covers

The argument, the studies and the stories are in the book. Get the book.

  • ·What Your Body Expects
  • ·What It Gets Instead
  • ·Where the Surplus Goes
  • ·What Goes on the Plate
  • ·What Goes in the Glass

Mismatch card

The system

Appetite and fuel: the gut, liver, muscle and fat, and the reward circuits that steer eating.

What it expects

Food that took work to get and time to chew, sugar wrapped in fiber, alcohol at a fraction of a percent, and water when thirsty.

What it gets

More than half its calories from ultra-processed food, sugar and alcohol in concentrated drinks, and little physical work.

What happens in the gap

People eat more without trying, surplus fat overflows into the liver and muscle, and diabetes climbs, as it did along the Gila.

The handrail

Fewer ultra-processed foods; meals built on plants, legumes and minimally processed protein and fats; water to thirst; little or no alcohol (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.)

Strength of evidence

ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials. Feeding trials and diet-pattern trials agree on direction; most food-by-food evidence is observational, and the best mix of fat and carbohydrate is still argued.

What you've heard

Popular claims this chapter tests, each with the book's verdict and grade.

The protocol

Each action carries the book's evidence grade. How the grades work.

Start here

  1. Cut the ultra-processed share first, beginning with sugary drinks and processed meat

    ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.

    How: swap sugary drinks, including energy drinks, for water, tea, coffee or sparkling water; keep juice to a small glass; make bacon, ham and hot dogs occasional; change what is in the cupboard, so the easy option at home is food that was recently an ingredient. Start with the meals you eat most often. Why: in controlled feeding, people ate about five hundred calories a day more on ultra-processed menus, and drinks and processed meat carry the clearest long-term signals.

  2. Build meals on plants, legumes, and minimally processed protein and fats

    ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.

    How: fill half the plate with vegetables and fruit, a quarter with whole grains or potatoes, a quarter with protein, often beans, lentils or fish; cook with olive or another liquid plant oil; add a handful of nuts most days. Work up to at least 25 grams of fiber a day, slowly, to limit gas; in practice that means beans or lentils most days, whole grains in place of white bread and rice, and fruit or vegetables at every meal. Include a fermented food with live cultures most days, such as plain yogurt, kefir or kimchi (EmergingEvidence grade: Emerging. Early, small, animal-only, or actively contested.; one small trial, see Chapter 6). Why: this is the pattern with trial support for heart events, and it lowered blood pressure within weeks (StrongEvidence grade: Strong. Multiple randomized controlled trials, or consistent large cohort studies with a well-understood mechanism. for blood pressure).

  3. Drink to thirst

    ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.

    How: water with meals and when thirsty; coffee, tea, milk and water-rich food all count. Drink more in heat and hard exercise, and in long events never drink past thirst. Why: thirst is the one intake signal the modern world has left mostly intact.

Then, pick from this menu

  • **Keep alcohol to two drinks a week or fewer, and none is fine (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials. for mortality; StrongEvidence grade: Strong. Multiple randomized controlled trials, or consistent large cohort studies with a well-understood mechanism. that it causes cancer).** That is the low-risk line in Canada's guidance, and women carry more risk per drink (see above). If you drink heavily every day, do not stop abruptly without medical advice, because withdrawal can be dangerous (Chapter 14).

  • **Eat enough protein (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.).** For someone who weighs about 155 pounds, that means at least 55 grams a day, with a US goal of about 85 to 110, including during weight loss. The simple habit is some protein food at every meal. Pair it with strength training (Chapter 4). With kidney disease, ask a clinician before raising protein.

  • **Eat fish twice a week, about eight ounces in all (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.).** Choose lower-mercury fish if pregnant, breastfeeding or feeding young children. Eat the fish itself, not capsules.

  • **Keep caffeine to about two to three twelve-ounce cups of coffee a day, and about half that if pregnant, with none in the six hours before sleep (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials. for the daily limit; EmergingEvidence grade: Emerging. Early, small, animal-only, or actively contested. for the exact cutoff, Chapter 8).** Energy drinks can hold a whole day's caffeine in one can; skip them if you have a heart rhythm problem.

  • **Cook, or assemble, most nights, eat more slowly, and use smaller plates (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials. for portions and pace; EmergingEvidence grade: Emerging. Early, small, animal-only, or actively contested. for home cooking).** Smaller portions and plates reduce intake, and eating more slowly lowers intake without leaving people hungrier.32

  • **If your sense of smell fades, get it checked (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.).** See a doctor about sudden or persistent loss, since in older adults it can come before Parkinson's disease, and check your smoke and gas detectors. After a virus, smell training helps some people: sniff four strong scents twice a day for about three months. Never put oils in your nose.33

If this is you

Prediabetes

aim to lose about seven percent of your weight (about fourteen pounds if you weigh two hundred) and build up to two and a half hours a week of brisk activity (StrongEvidence grade: Strong. Multiple randomized controlled trials, or consistent large cohort studies with a well-understood mechanism.). If a sore knee objects, take short walks after meals instead of one long one (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.; Chapter 3). Ask your doctor for a FIB-4 score, the liver check from routine blood tests.

Recent type 2 diabetes

ask about supervised, diet-based remission (ProbableEvidence grade: Probable. Good observational evidence with a plausible mechanism, or small or few trials.), and never stop diabetes or blood-pressure drugs on your own.

Considering semaglutide or a similar drug

treat it as a legitimate, long-term medical option chosen with a clinician (StrongEvidence grade: Strong. Multiple randomized controlled trials, or consistent large cohort studies with a well-understood mechanism.), with protein and strength training alongside. The label rules it out with a personal or family history of medullary thyroid cancer or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, and says to stop at least two months before a planned pregnancy. Tell the surgical team before anesthesia, and report severe abdominal pain at once. Europe's medicines regulator lists a sudden loss of vision (NAION) as a very rare side effect, so report that at once too. With a history of eating disorders, involve your specialist.34

Perimenopause and after

strength training twice a week and less alcohol are your best levers beyond the plate (Chapter 15).

PCOS, or irregular cycles and a question about it

the same plate and more movement apply even if you are lean; see Chapter 15 for diagnosis and treatment.

Night shifts

pack the shift's food at home, stop caffeine at least six hours before your daytime sleep, and choose water or coffee over energy drinks. Shift work is linked to a slightly higher diabetes risk, so the plate matters more (Chapter 8).35

Over sixty

offer yourself drinks in hot weather, since thirst fades with age. Over 65: see Chapter 4 for higher protein needs.

Tight budget or short on time

keep a standing list: oats, eggs, frozen vegetables and berries, canned fish, canned beans (drained and rinsed), dried lentils, microwave rice, a bag of nuts and seasonal produce. Use one template dinner for the whole family most nights, and cook double on the weekend. Assembling counts as cooking.

Worried about your tap water

look up your utility's results for PFAS, long-lived industrial chemicals found in the blood of almost every American, whose harm at everyday levels is uncertain. Under-sink reverse-osmosis filters removed nearly all of them in tested homes (EmergingEvidence grade: Emerging. Early, small, animal-only, or actively contested.).36

Safety

Build up fiber slowly, and with inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome or a past bowel obstruction, ask a clinician first. Very-low-calorie diets need medical supervision if you take diabetes medication, and are not for pregnancy or anyone with a history of eating disorders. The same goes for an eating window: skip it in pregnancy or with a history of disordered eating, and do not start one on glucose-lowering medication without your clinician adjusting the dose. Acetaminophen is a leading cause of acute liver failure, often when people take two products containing it at once, so check labels and never double up. If a drug label warns against grapefruit, one fruit or glass of juice is enough to matter.36 Headache, vomiting or confusion after heavy drinking of water during a long event is an emergency: get medical help, and do not drink more. With heart failure, kidney disease or a prescribed fluid limit, follow your clinician's advice over any general rule. If eating feels out of control, see a clinician: binge eating disorder is treatable.

The skeptic's box

What could overturn this chapter, from the chapter itself.

The loudest diet argument is carbohydrates against calories. One camp holds that fast-digesting carbohydrates drive fat storage through insulin, the other that total intake decides. In a second NIH ward study, adults eating freely took in about seven hundred calories a day less on a low-fat, plant-based diet than on a very-low-carbohydrate, animal-based one. In a year-long trial, healthy low-fat and healthy low-carbohydrate diets did about equally well. Quality seems to matter more than the ratio. "Ultra-processed" may not survive as a scientific category either: French food specialists sorting the same foods agreed poorly on which were ultra-processed, and the feeding trials are small and short.37 Most food-by-food findings come from cohorts, where people who eat beans and nuts also differ in income, smoking and exercise. What would change this chapter: long trials showing that the processing itself, with calories, fiber and speed of eating held equal, does no harm.

Go deeper in the reference library

The research this chapter was built from, as longer reference entries: each with its own mismatch card, graded recommendations and the case against it.

See also in the book

Sources behind this page

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Every work this chapter cites

The chapter's 37 notes cite 131 works, listed by note number. Each is also in the full source register.

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